The main step to write a paragraph:

Unity: it talks about one idea or the notion that talks about one topic or one aspect of the topic.

Coherence: is the straight line of development of our topic.

Topic sentence: it express the main idea of the topic, it has to be specific, explicit, precise, concise

The controlling Idea: it is a word or a group of words, make our sentence clear.

Some examples:

q 2000 space odyssey is an interesting movie.

q The Olympic games are interesting

q Mahatma Gandy was an inspiring leader.

q Music is enjoyable.

à 2000 space odyssey describes some of the problem of space travel.
à In the Olympic games, the athletics of many nations compete intensely.
à Mahatma Gandhi (was an inspiring) used passive resistance to rich his political goals.
à Music arouses many different emotions listeners.

This paragraph is unified, it talks about the change of the Japanese women, more precisely, he talked about the topic sentence (the change of the Japanese women), and then moved directly to the subdivision through several examples.

The indention (the space before starting writing paragraph).

The subdivision: is the idea that includes what has proceeded.

Transitions: that introduced what is coming after

Transitions can take several forms:

1. Transition words: therefore, however, nevertheless, that, …

2. Phrases: in fact, for instance, to conclude, for example

3. Pronouns: refer to antecedents

4. Adjectives: first, second…

5. Coordinating conjunction: and, but, yet, finally, there, this, not, for, at, last, next, otherwise, now, too, also, another, accordingly, at this time, in this case, indeed, moreover

6. To explain: for, thus, in this case

7. To keep an eye: above, all, indeed, in fact

8. To illustrate: there, fore, of course, although, never the less, instead, admittedly

9. To compare: like, as, unlike, in contrast

10. To consequent: consequently, after all

11. To summarize: all, in all, finally, in summary.

The paragraph:

Subordination is the technique of putting together ideas that are unequal in weight.

Independent clause is the main clause; the dependent clause is not completed. Without the independent clause we can’t understand the dependent.

Through subordination you can focus on the controlling idea of your sentence by placing it in the independent clause, and placing the less important idea in the dependent clause.




Cooking methods and some English colloquialisms

Britain is primarily an industrial country, the principal centres of industry are the London area: engineers, chemicals, food and drink. The southwest, England, aircraft, railway, marine and shipbuilding. Other centres do also care about industries, in the midlands: vehicles, coal mining, steel manufacture and pottery. In Hampshire, cotton textiles and coalmining. In Yorkshire, woollen textiles, heavy engineering and steel manufacture. The UK is conspicuously famous by these industries production.




Cooking methods and some English colloquialisms

Basic methods of preparing food show great similarity throughout the world, but English cooking terms sometimes have special meanings. For example, almost all cultures have devised some means of baking, that is cooking bread or other liquid, is another universal practice. A related process, stewing, means to boil slowly or gently a mixture usually of meat, vegetables, and water. Still another cooking process, roasting, means to cook meat In its own juices over an open fire or in an oven. While the terms to describe the various cooking methods have a literal meaning in formal English. In informal English they are sometimes used to describe human behaviour in a colourful or humorous way. Half-baked, for instance, may refer to a foolish idea or stupid person. Boiling or boiling mad means very angry. In a stew means to be worried or to be in a difficult situation, and to stew in one’s own juices means to suffer, especially from one’s over actions. To roast a person means to criticise or ridicule him without mercy. In other cases, a person, through his excessive relish of life, might get picked and end up in a jam. This brief list demonstrates the use of cooking terms as colloquial expressions to picture humour conduct more vividly.

Analysis:

v What’s the name and function of the first sentence in the paragraph?

ü The name of the first sentence is the topic sentence (TS),

ü Its function is to express the main idea of the text

v What’s the name and function of sentences 2 to 5 in the paragraph?

ü The name of the second sentence is a developed sentence, which function is supporting examples.

v This paragraph contains a view point or context modulation, that is a transition sentence, it is: “While the terms to describe the various cooking methods have a literal meaning in formal English”

v The sixth sentence express the context modulator, it connects two ideas: the varied meanings of terms between the formal and the informal English. It relates the terms of cooking methods and the using their words for expressing people behaviours.

ü Transition words are:

· For example: it begins the list of cooking (baking).

· In another: it lists the second example (to join bowling).

· A related process: it lists the third example (to join stewing).

· In another: it lists the fourth example (to join roasting).

v What’s the name and function of the final sentence?

ü The name of the last sentence is “Terminate” or the “conclusion”

ü The round off of the paragraph by referring back to the topic sentence is referring to the topic sentence that was about the cooking terms and their special meaning.


Effective writing: a Must in University

The ability to write well-organized, concise paragraphs is essential to a student success in almost all university courses. In preparing scientific reports of laboratory experiments, a student must present his findings in logical order and clear language in order to receive a favourable evaluation of his work. To write successful answers to essay questions on history or anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some accepted patterns of paragraph structure. And certainly, when a student writes a book report for English, or a critique for political studies, or a term paper for sociology, style and organization are often as important as content. Clearly, skill in expository writing a crucial to successful achievement in most university subjects.

Analysis:

v The Topic Sentence (TS) is: “The ability to write well organized, concise paragraphs is essential to a student success in almost all university courses.”

v The Example Sentences (ES) are:

ü In preparing scientific reports of laboratory experiments, a student must present his findings in logical order and clear language in order to receive a favourable evaluation of his work.

ü To write successful answers to essay questions on history or anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some accepted patterns of paragraph structure.

ü And certainly, when a student writes a book report for English, or a critique for political studies, or a term paper for sociology, style and organization are often as important as content.

v The Restatement Sentence (RS) is:
Clearly, skill in expository writing a crucial to successful achievement in most university subjects.

v What is the relationship between sentence 2 and 1?

ü The first sentence is the topic sentence (TS), whereas the second is a specific example (E), which presents the general idea expressed in TS.

v Which sentence presents a specific example?

ü The sentences 2, 3, and 4 are specific Examples expressed in TS.

v What is the relation between the sentence 3 and 1?

ü The third sentence is a specific example expresses and supports the TS.

v Does the final sentence function as an adequate terminator? Why?

ü Yes, it is, it round f, restates.

ü these keywords refer back to university courses. The ability to write well and skill.







Manual labour

Manual labour is one of the principal development resources in any industrialising country, as the following examples demonstrate. To begin with, ploughing fields, planting and harvesting crops, and raising **** stocks are all important to development and all require people who work with their hands. Secondly, mining natural resources, building roads and bridges, and constructing dams for irrigation and electrical power are also important to development and also require people who know how to use their hands skilfully. And of course, the manufacture as well as the maintenance of machines of all kinds demands a large number of trained mechanics and technicians. Finally, the establishment of efficient transportation and communication systems, essential services in modernising economy, relies heavily on a labour force of expert craftsmen who take pride in their manual skills. Clearly, in agriculture and in industry, the progress of a country depends on the busy hands of its working people.

Analysis:

v The Topic Sentence (TS) is:
“Manual labour is one of the principal development resources in any industrialising country, as the following examples demonstrate.”

v The Example Sentences (ES) are:

ü To begin with, ploughing fields, planting and harvesting crops, and raising ****stocks are all important to development and all require people who work with their hands.

ü Secondly, mining natural resources, building roads and bridges, and constructing dams for irrigation and electrical power are also important to development and also require people who know how to use their hands skilfully.

ü And of course, the manufacture as well as the maintenance of machines of all kinds demands a large number of trained mechanics and technicians.

ü Finally, the establishment of efficient transportation and communication systems, essential services in modernising economy, relies heavily on a labour force of expert craftsmen who take pride in their manual skills.

v The Restatement Sentence (RS) is:
Clearly, in agriculture and in industry, the progress of a country depends on the busy hands of its working people.

v How do the ideas of TS relate the ones of the 4 examples sentences?

ü All Examples Sentences list types of manual labour

v In term of ideas, what do the TS and RS have in common?

ü Development or progress of a country depends on manual labour

v There are 4 examples sentences in this paragraph. Give reasons for arranging theses in this sequence.

ü The classifying of Examples is based on: to begin with, is the first, and secondly comes next. Since finally introduce the last example, then of course must be the third one.

v Find a title for this paragraph.

ü Title: “development and manual labour”

Paragraph developed by comparison

A comparison paragraph, as its name indicate, compares similar aspects, or qualities of two subjects. In this lesson, two procedures will be followed. In the first procedure, an example related to one subject-A- Alternates with an example related to another subject-B. in the second procedure, all examples of subject A are listed together followed by all the examples of subject-B-.
Transitional words and expressions:

Within sentences


Between sentences

Ø A is like B

Ø A and B are similar

Ø A resembles B

Ø A cost the same as B

Ø Both A and B


Ø Learning driving cars requires patience. Similarly, learning a language request patience.

Ø Likewise

Ø Correspondingly



Similarities in Christianity and Islam

Two of the major religions of the world are Christianity and Islam. Although seemingly different, the two faiths share several fundamental beliefs and practices. Both worship the same deity, whom the Christians term God and the Muslims call Allah. For knowledge of his faith and for inspiration, the Christian turns to his holy book, the Bible. The Muslim too, has a holy book, the Koran, which guides his prayers and gives meaning to his life. The ten commandments and the Sermon on the Mount provide a code of ethics for the ****s of all Christians. Similarly, all Muslims subscribe to the Hadith and the Five Pillars of Faith for daily guidance. Such basic similarities in code and conduct illustrate the shared heritage of Christianity and Islam.


Form paragraph to Essay

Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic sentence or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In the essay, the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the body of a paragraph develop the topic sentence. Similarly, the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that expend and support the ideas presented in the introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator –whatever a restatement, conclusion, or observation- ends the paragraph. The essay too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically satisfying completion; the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalisations may be observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in structure.

Analysis:

v Does this paragraph include the necessary parts discussed: topic sentence, developers, terminator? Identify them.

ü Yes, as mentioned with colours

v Point out transitional devices –either words or phrases- used in the paragraph.

ü Similar, for example, next, similarly, finally, although, are comparable

Paragraph developed by contrast

Unlike the comparison paragraph, which compares similar aspects of two subjects, the contrast paragraph compares dissimilar aspects of two subjects. Like the comparison paragraph, however, two procedures may be followed in writing the contrast paragraph. The first method alternates examples of subject A with examples of subject B. the other method presents all the examples of subject A together, then all examples of subject B together.
Transitional words and expressions:

Within sentences


Between sentences

Ø A is unlike B

Ø A and B are different

Ø Either A or B are


Ø In Contrast

Ø However



The objective Test and the Essay Exam

In college and university courses, the objective test and the essay exam are two contrasting methods of evaluation commonly used to measure a student’s grasp of subject matter. The objective test usually consists of a large number of unrelated questions that require the student to demonstrate mastery of details. It often leads to rote memorisation of isolated facts during the pre-test period of study. Since the questions on the objective test are presented in true-false or multiple choice form, the student may be encouraged to guess answers for which he has no accurate knowledge. The essay exam, in the other hand, usually consists of a few broadly started questions that require the student to organize his responses in essay form. Such questions force the student to give proof of his ability to handle general concepts. This type of exam demonstrate analytical and compositional skills. Mere guessing at answers is reduced to a minimum. Although the objective test and the essay exam have similar goals -the assessment of a student’s academic achievement- the techniques (and very often the results) of the two types of examination differ significantly.





Where to study

One major decision which faces the American student ready to began higher education is the choice of attending a large university or a small college. The large university provides a large range of specialized departments. The small college, however, generally provides a limited number of courses and specializations but offers a better student-faculty ratio, thus permitting individualised attention to students. Because of its large, cosmopolitan student body often exceeding 20000, the university exposes its students to many different cultural, social, and extra-curricular programmes. On the other hand, the smaller, more homogeneous student body of the small college offers greater opportunities for direct involvement and individual participation in such activities. Finally, the university closely approximates the real world; it provides a relaxed, impersonal, and sometimes anonymous existence. In contrast, the intimate atmosphere of the small college allows the student four years of structured living in which to contemplate the prepare for the real world. In making his choice among educational institutions, the student must therefore, consider many factors.

Analysis:

v Locate the transitional words and phrases used in this paragraph to contrast aspects of small college and large university.

Within sentences


Between sentences

But


However

On the other hand

In contrast

v What procedure is used to contrast elements of two subjects

ü The writer followed the first procedure, that is the subject A (university) alternate B (small college).

v What symbols represent the structure of paragraph

ü TS, AE1, BE1, AE2, BE2 AE3, BE3, R



Paragraph developed by definition

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis, which occurs in all land plants and many water plants, is a food manufacturing process upon which all living things depend. The word is made up of two terms –photo– meaning light, and –synthesis– meaning the combination of two or more simple elements into a complex chemical compound. More precisely, photosynthesis is the process by which plants use the energy of light to produce compounds, such as sugar and starch, from a number of substance including water and carbon dioxide. In addition, the organic compounds? Photosynthesis forms oxygen which is related into the air. In the conversion of the light energy into chemical energy, photosynthesis is a primary energy-producing process for all plants and animals life.

Analysis:

v Photosynthesis is defined in the first sentence, why?
] Because it is the topic sentence.

v What is the purpose of the second sentence?
] The purpose is to add details.

v Is that a sentence modulator?
] There is no modulator.

v What is the function of the first sentence?
] the first sentence is the topic sentence.

v What words in the terminator help you refer back to the topic sentence?
] words in terminator refer back are:

ü Energy-producing process ¢ manufacturing process

ü All plants and animals life ¢ all living things



Paragraph developed by Classification

Political Parties

Politicians and political parties may be different from country to country, but I know people’s political views fall into only three categories. First is the conservative. I haven’t travelled much but in my experience, conservatives are all alike no matter where they ****. They want to be comfortable, but they don’t want to spend much on anyone else’s comfort or welfare. Second is the liberal. From what I have read in the newspapers, liberals seem to want the government to do everything. They usually don’t have much experience in the real world of hard work. Third is ‘the-middle-of-the-roader’. Middle-of-the-roader can’t make up their minds about what side to be on. In my opinion, most people are in this class. I don’t think I fit any of these categories, but you can place most people into one of these three groups.

Analysis:

v In this paragraph the writer:
] Uses an informal style à use of "I"
] Uses of contraction à which is not academic

v Discuss activity of each class to determine what distinguish one class to another
] The first class à the vocational guidance
] The second class à making experiment, involving animals
] The third class à human neurosis





The classification of paragraphs

Individuals paragraphs –the building blocks of essays, articles chapters, and other longer papers- may be classified in a variety of ways. At the essay level, paragraphs may be sorted into functional groups such as introductory, developmental, transitional, summarising, and the like. Depending upon the purpose or intent of the writer, particular paragraphs may be thought of as aiming to persuade, inform, argue, or excite. Paragraphs may also be classified according to such techniques of development as comparison, contrast, and definition. Another development device might also be the classification paragraphs, which organises items or ideas to be discussed into relatively homogenous groups. Such classifications make it possible to talk about a large number of paragraphs by grouping them into a small number of classes.





Psychology

Psychology, as defined, comprises a number of different kinds of enterprises, so different that they may seem to have nothing in common. One psychologist is engaged in vocational guidance; he spends his day talking to high school students, studying their academic records and their test scores and from these, in principle, showing the students how to clarify his own ideas about his future training and occupation. Another spends his day studying delayed reaction in goldfish or the navigation of bats. Other psychologists are assisting in the diagnosis of neurotic patients, doing research on the childhood experiences that contribute to neurosis, or taking part in combined research on the effect of tranquillisers. But all such disparate activities have this in common, that the methods drive from the same fundamental training in the procedures and conceptions of academic psychology, and that the worker is either putting the conceptions to principal use or trying to improve on them (or both).