Nouns


Pronouns


Verbs

Subjects
Complements
Objects
appositives


I, We, They, You…
My, Mines, Hers…
Who, which, whose…
Myself, yourself…
All, few, nobody…
This, those…


Actions Verbs:
play, work, make...

Linking Verbs:
be, appear, feel, smell, run, seem, look...

Followed by adj

Adjectives


Adverbs


Prepositions

Stand before verbs
Or
Follow linking verbs


Modify verbs, adj, adv, whole clause:
Up, rather, fortunately


Above, after, around, at, because of, behind, by, down, for, from, in, in front of, over, till, to, with, trough, on…

Conjunctions


Interjections

Coordinating conj :

And, but, for, yet, or, nor, so …

Subordinating conj :

after, because, so that, while, as, although, since, when, where, till

Correlative conj :

Both..and , whether..or, not only..but , either..or



Exclamatory words:

Oh!, wow!, help!, ahh!, hooray…
Punctuation

COMMAS « , »


HIPHEN « - »

In a compound long sentences:

… and, ….. or, nor, yet, so…

to set off appositives:

Mr. Hale, the librarian, was quite To set off introductory sentences from the rest:

Between that and that, a flower was growing

To set off interrupting expression:

It’s butter, I suppose, to loose your sheep

To set off non-restrictive clauses:

The boy, who is with her, is her brother

Some words at beginning of the sentences such:

Yes, no, well, however,

To separate items in series:

She bought bread, milk, and sugar.

In date, addresses and salutations:

Dear Mary,… sincerely,

Words in direct address:

John, what are you doing?



To divide words:

That contains more than one syllabus

In numbers < 100: Thirty-three

words modifying nouns:

two-third. Pine-forested

with prefixes:

self- . ex- . all -

QUESTION MARK « ? »


EXCLAMATION MARK « ! »


COLON « : »

In direct questions:
…
to express doubt:
it is 9 pm (?) in Japan


Express emotions:
…
in order:
go out now!
Hurry !


Clause explain clause:
The ……
it is ….
Before long list...
Such as...
as follows...
For example...
for instance...

SEMICOLON « ; »


FULL STOP « . »

, < ; < . periods:
to replace conjunctions:
…..
to separates commas:
…,…,..; …,…,…; …,..


End of Sentence …
Letters & abbreviations:
N.J. ; Mr.
Exception: NASA, DOS
When to capitalize

We Capitalize


Examples

Names of days, months, holidays [Except Seasons]


December, Tuesday, Easter.
spring, fall

Names of Particular Organizations, Schools, Colleges, Universities, buildings, Companies


Red Cross
Central High School
New York

Names of Particular historic events, documents, periods


American Revolution
World War II
Middle Ages

Names of Brands or products


Crackle Chewies
Skipslow Butter

Names of Religions, races, laguages, nationalities


French, Nigerian, Swahili

Adj made from capitalized nouns (proper adj) [Except:When they have become common through]


Chinese cuisine
Goodish furniture
french doors

Words that show a person’s family relationship, rank (grade), title, office, profession when they are used with person’s name


Uncle Ahmed
Cousin Jack
Colonel Watson
“Come here, Mother”

Titles of important office holders


The President of Algeria
The Secretary of State



the Soviet Union
Nevada, Ghana, Lake Superior, Wellesley Road

First, last & all important words in a title (include verbs: is, am, see, like)


Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

Words referring to GOD


Praise God and thanks Him for His many blessings

Salutations and first word of the complementary close


Dear Sir
Dear Carlos
Sincerly Yours

First word in each line of poem [Not respected in modern poems]


The …
It ….

School subjects when they are languages or courses


Ancient African Civilisation
Spanish, Biology

First Word spoken in dialogue


“Please look away.”
We Don't Capitalize

We Don't Capitalize


Exception

In general cases


when one of the rules above is checked or to create a special effect

Names of animals, birds, flowers, trees, diseases, games, foods and seasons


except: when they contain a proper noun or proper adj

Point of compass (east, west, ..)


When referring to region or political entity

a, an ,the when precede title or name


When they are a part of the clause

mother, father, etc


When they are used as a name
Common Statement Patterns

T


Rules


Examples

SVO


Subject + TransitiveVerb + DirectObject

We ask “what does?” to find DirObj

DirObj receive the action of the verb


He ate breakfast. What did he eat? => SVO

She went to town. What did she go? => !! not SVO

SVC (Noun or Adj)


Subject + LinkingVerb + SubjComp

If SubjComp refers to same thing as Subj => is noun

If SubjComp discribe the Subj => is adj


John is a student => John & student refers to the same person.

The lesson is long => long describe the lesson.

SVOO


Subject + IntransitiveVerb + IndirectObject + DirectObject

IO and DO are nouns

For IO we ask: whom?

For DO we ask: what does?

Sentence cannot normally have an IO if the DO is expressed as pronoun. If DO is a pronoun, then we must use adjunct forms


He gave her son a gift
s v io do

She gave a gift to her son
s v do io

She told the boys a story =>T
s v io do

She told them a story =>T
s v io do

She told it to them =>T
s v do io

She told them it =>F
s v io do

nterrogatory and Exclamatory Sentence patterns

“Closed” or “yes/no” Questions

N°


Pattern


Exemples

1


Be


+ S


+ SC


is Mary a teacher?

2


Be


+ S


+ A


is Mary here?

3


Aux


+ S


+ V


can she come?

is she come? is <=> Aux

Has she a car? Has <=> verb
“Open” or “wh” Questions
N° Pattern Exemples
1 Wh-(S) + v + ... Who came?
what animals eat meat?
2 Wh-(SC/DO/A) +aux +s +v +... What has he become? 4SC
what did he eat? 4DO
when did he come? 4A
3 Wh-(SC/A) +be +s +... What is he? 4SC
Where is he? 4A
4 What +aux +s +do What should he do?

To emphasize


Pattern


Exemple

noun


what + real pattern


what beautiful flowers grow in the garden!

adj


how + rest




how intelligent her son is!

How big the house is!

what a+ rest


What an intelligent boy her son is!

What a big house it is!

quantity


How many + rest


how many people came to the party!

What a lot of + rest


What a lot of people came to the party
Sequence of modifiers before nouns

noun deter


possive nouns & their modifiers


ord

-only

-same


card

-many

-other


descr adj


age/size adj

-little

-old

-new


color adj


categ adj


nouns & other adjuncts


head nouns

the


man’s


first


two


best


little


red


French


oil


painting

my





only


other











English


flowers


garden










several


beautiful


little


white








roses

PHRASES

Phrase is a group of words without a subject and without a verb, functioning as a verb, a noun, an adjective or an adverb
I Type of phrases:
A. prepositional phrase:

e.g. the man in blue jeans is Henry Wilkinson
the phrase is used as an adjective modifying <the man>

e.g. arrange your flowers on the kitchen counter
the phrase is used as an adverb modifying <arrange>
B. participle phrase (gerund):

e.g. speaking politely, the motorist tried to contradict the police officer
the participle phrase is used as an adjective

e.g. weakened by successive storms, the bridge was no longer safe
the participle phrase is used as an adjective
C. gerund phrase

e.g. fishing without license is prohibited
the gerund phrase is used as a subject (noun)

e.g. she was very tired of having been manager for ten years
the gerund phrase is used as function of object for the preposition “of”.

e.g. my happiest moment was climbing up the somet
the gerund phrase is used after the subject complement after the verb “was”
[Gerund is a part of the verb]
D. infinitive phrase:

e.g. dale want to read that book
the infinitive phrase is used as Direct Object of the verb “want”



Sentences patterns used with verbs like: give, ask, explain, buy, open,…etc

To give:

SVOO he gave the girl a doll

SVOA he gave a doll to the girl

Two patterns are possible with the verb <to give>

There are some verbs that can be used as <give>:
write, read, show, teach, tell, sell, send, lend, bring, take, pass…

To ask:

SVOO he asked the man a question
Please, ask him his phone number

SVOA: !!

<To ask> don’t accept SVOA, because there is no reception of the object by receptor.

There are some verbs that can be used as <ask>:
cost, save, charge, wish...

SVOO The book coast me here dollars
SVOO He saved ten Dollars
SVOO The policeman charged me ten dollars
SVOO I wish them a pleasant journey
SVOA !!

To Explain:

SVOO He explained the lesson to us

Only one pattern is possible to the verb “to explain”, it is SVOO

We have other verbs like the verb: to explain, These verbs are: announce, describe, introduce, mention, prove, repeat, say, suggest, speak, report, talk.

E.g.: the teacher announce the examination to the student
E.g.: we described our class to them
E.g.: he introduced his wife to us
E.g.: he mentioned the problem to them
E.g.: they repeated their names to me
E.g.: he said “Hello” to me
E.g.: He is speaking English to me

To buy

SVOO Jane always buys to mark flowers

SVOA Jane always buys flowers to mark

We have other verbs like the verb: to buy, These verbs are: get, make, find, do, bake.

To open

SVOO !!

SVOA He opened the door for the teacher

We have other verbs like the verb: to open, These verbs are: answer, close, cash, pronounce, prescribe.


II- Gerund Phrase:

E.g. Fishing without a license is prohibited. [Gerund Ph subject]

E.g. she was very tired of having been manager for ten years [Gerund Ph obj of preposition (of) ]

E.g. My happiest moment was climbing up the summit. [Gerund Ph subj comp]

III- Infinitive Phrase:

E.g. john wants to read that book. [DO ]

Exercise:

Identify the underlined phrases as gerund participle, prepositional or infinitive phrases:

1- To catch a thief is the name of both, a book & a film [inf as a subj]

2- We began cleaning the filthy oven [ger as an obj]

3- We linked the idea of owning our business [ger as an obj]

4- My parents finally received visas to visit East Germany and Poland [inf as an obj]

5- John admired the excellence of the road running through Kansas [participle as an adj]

6- The purpose of the speed was to interest young people in government service [inf as an obj]

7- The student getting the fewest wrong answers [participle]

8- He was surprised at her saying this [ger as]

9- The people were singing on the bus [prepositional]

10- Climbing Mont Everest is possible but extremely hazardous [ger as an subj]

When there is ing


Manner => participle => e.g. fishing slowly
Noun => gerund => e.g. fishing now

Exercise:

Identify the type of phrases:

1- We enjoyed seeing the slides of her trip to Kenya <Gerund>

2- To my surprise, the doctor phoned <infinitive>

3- The boy with curly hair is my brother <prepositional>

4- Mr. German decide to sow the plant <infinitive>

5- Speaking of the president, did you hear his speech last night <parti..>

6- Pearl’s new bike was locked in the tool shed. <prepositional>

7- To die honorably was the wish of every evening soldier <prepositio..>

8- My idea of a pleasant summer evening is eating some chicken out doors <Gerund>

Participle => part of the verb
Gerund => noun with ing as a subject

The different functions of phrases

1- as verb:
e.g. American English is being thought to the new student
e.g. They are learning German now
e.g. Peter could go to USA

2- as noun: they function as subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, objects of preposition & appositives.

e.g. listening to pop music is my favorite hobby
Gerund

e.g. after the last performance, the student were asked to return back all costumes borrowed from the costume room
Infinitive

e.g. He gives reading magazines and newspapers all his free time
<The ph is used as subject complement because there is a linking verb. the origine: he gives (his free time) (for reading .)>

e.g. my brother’s favorite pastime is telling funny stories
<The ph is used as subject complement>

e.g. Hall got his present position by watching carefully all notices on the company employment opportunity board.
<The ph is used as preposition>

e.g. his childhood hobby, collecting stamps & coins made him a rich man.
<The ph is used as an adjective>

3- as adjectives:
e.g. Mary pretended not to see the dog following her
<The ph is used as an adjective modifying ………………..>

e.g. Any order a hamburger with cheese
<The ph is used as an adjective modifying (hamburger)>

e.g. the dresses made of Dacron were easier to iron
<The ph is used as an adjective modifying the noun (dresses) because is a participle>

e.g. Dan has no right to open my mail
<The ph is an infinitive used as an adjective modifying the noun (right), and the phrase is an object complement>

4- as Adverbs
e.g. Todd spoke with a sneer
<is prepositional phrase used as an adverb modifying the verb (spoke)>

e.g. we got there before supper
<it is prepositional phrase used as an adverb of time modifying (got)>

e.g. I run around the garage
<it is prepositional phrase used as an adverb of place modifying (run)>

e.g. She had come up to complain about the noise
< is infinitive phrase used as an adverb modifying the verb (had come)>

Exercise:

underline the phrase & say what type & what function they are:

1- the open road, the freedom to move on these are among the most treasured American beliefs.

2- reading the piece and looking at the pictures, I was overwhelmed by conscience.

3- On the mist-shrouded moors of northern England men poked sticks into the mushy peat and then held the sticks ends to their noses, seeking the smell of death

4- Cradled in his mothers arms, a skinny baby monkey smith a forlorn face mad his debut at the Saint Diego Rio. The infant is a rare proboscis monkey, the first of its kind form in captivity

Compared Sentences

Correlative Conjunction

Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative conjunctions.

The first one in the sentence anticipates the meaning of the second. They may be used to join two independent clauses or two parallel elements of any kind though they can not all be used in all of these ways.

The correlatives normally precede the element they join

1 Both … And:
these they not join clauses but can join parallel elements within clauses
e.g. I both admire his courage and respect his honesty. <verb à verb>
e.g. she likes both cats and dogs. <DO à DO>
e.g. she is both gracious and graceful. <adj (SC) à adj (SC)>
e.g. he is both astern and loving. <adj à adj>

2 either … or:
notice the two possible positions for “either” when joining clauses.

a} joining clauses
e.g. either you can stop talking or you can leave the room.
e.g. you can either stop talking or you can leave the room

b} joining parallel elements within a clause
e.g. either his mother or his sister will meet him after school <noun or noun>
e.g. he will either answer the question or get zero <choice between two verbs>
e.g. she plans to go either to Spain or to Italy
==> she plans to go to either Spain or to Italy
<”to Spain” is a prepositional phrase which mean “adv of place”>

3 Not only … but:<also … too, as well>
Notice the prepositions when joining clauses

a. joining clauses:
e.g. They not only play tennis, but they (also) take parts in tournaments (as well, too).
e.g. Not only does he do two jobs, but he (also) grows a lot of vegetables in his garden (as well, too).

b. Joining parallel elements within a clause
e.g. He was not only handsome but (also) rich (as well, too).
<there is a link between two adjectives>
e.g. the poison destroyed not only the pests but (also) the plants (as well, too).
<there is a link between two objects>

4 Neither … nor
notice the two possible positions for “either” when joining clauses.

a. Joining clauses
e.g. I can neither write illegally nor can I write legibly <normal position>
e.g. neither is he a good student nor does he try to be for emphasize.

b. joining parallel elements within a clause
e.g. he is neither tired nor lazy
<there is a link between two adjectives>
e.g. he consider is work neither exceptionally goes nor very bad
<there is a link between two adjectives used as subject complement>

Remark: not on the word order
notice the inversion of subject and verb after the negative words neither … nor

Formal only:

Remark: not on the punctuation
as in compound sentences joined by simple coordination conjunctions, a commas separating independent clauses should be changed to a semicolon when ever any other “commas” are used in the sentence.




Exercise:

Alice & Jane:

Alice: {tall} {blond } {a teacher } {likes to read detective stories and historical novels} {likes to travel} {is married} {has two children (boy & girl)} {speaks only English} {likes classical music} {in the evenings she usually reads one of her favorite books}

Jane: {blond } {a teacher } {watches TV a lot } {likes to travel} {is single} {speaks English and French} {likes only modern music} {reads mostly magazines} {does not know how to knit}

- Compare and contrast Alice and Jane using correlative conjunctions to join clauses and parallel elements within a clauses:

· either … or + clause

· either + CD = compound subject. We have a subject parallel

· either … or + CD object

· neither … nor + CD subject
neither … nor + CD clauses
neither … nor + CD verb
neither … nor + CD object

· neither … nor + CD clauses
neither … nor + CD object
neither … nor + CD adjective

· not only + but + verb
both and + CD subject
both and + CD verb
both and + CD object
both and + CD adjective

e.g.: both Alice and Jane are teachers
e.g.: they both of their likes travel

Coordinating Conjunctions

Adding one sentence to one or more other sentences to one may expand sentences. The product is called a compound sentence.

Compounding is released through the use of connecting words called conjunction & connectors.

1. junction join equal elements:
they are often called coordinated conjunction. They are as follows:
and, or, nor, but, for, so, yet.

a. And: shows addition
e.g. John moved to new York and Alice moved to Chicago

b. But & Yet: show contrast:
e.g. John moved away but Alice stayed in town
e.g. Jarry has saved money all year, yet he does not have enough for his vacation

c. Or & Nor: show contrast alternation
e.g. are you going to the party, or you will stay at home
e.g. I don’t write Arabic nor I don’t speak it very well.
<notice the question word order>

d. For & So: show reason:
e.g. that student failed for he was very ill this year.
e.g. the books were cheap, so I bought all of them.

The Connections

Connections are used to connect basic sentences parts to make connected sentences, here are the principal ones: however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, also, beside, consequently, or else, otherwise, never the less, in fact, indeed, then.

Examples:

1. Alice moved to new York, however her mother stayed in Britain

2. You have disobeyed me, therefore I will not help you

3. Harrison is kind, moreover, he is generous addition

4. He did not discus the matter with her, furthermore, he didn’t even count in fact

5. I prepared my baggage, also I phoned the hotel

6. I **** too far a way to visit you, beside you are never at home

7. He didn’t his home work, consequently he was punished

8. You must study hard or else you will fail

9. The leaders establish the argument; otherwise he would have been...

10. We must meat deadline, hence the decision is needed now to leave

11. Mrs. Adam was in invalided situation, never the less he had an active career.

12. John did not come, in fact nobody come

13. I don’t mind at all, indeed I would be delighted to help reality.

14. We study English first then we study Deutsch

Exercise:

Combine the following sentences with connectors to form meaningful compound sentences:

1. I didn’t really like it, ………….. it was very expensive

2. I don’t want to go now, ………….. it’s too late now

3. There is fog at Heathrow airport, all the planes are hidden


Complex sentence

A sentence is made up of a main clause & one or more subordinate clauses, is called a complex sentence

There are three types of subordinate clauses:

Adverb clauses, Adjective clauses & Noun clauses

1. Adverb Clauses: just as an adverb, modifies the verb, a clause may do the same work of telling us about the verb

a. Adverb clause of time:
tell us when the action takes place.
e.g. the plain landed when the fog lifted

b. Adverb clause of place:
tell us where the action takes place.
e.g. He went where he was born

c. Adverb clause of manner:
says how or what manner the action is performed.
e.g. the race ended as all the experts had forecast

d. Adverb clause of comparison:
makes explicit comparison.
e.g. In the future, people my work short hours than they do now
e.g. He sings as badly as he act

e. Adverb clause of cause or reason:
answer the question: “why” in order to know the other clause of reason
e.g. they worried because time was short
e.g. since time was short, they worried
e.g. as time was short, they worried

f. Adverb clause of purpose & reason:
this indicate the purpose of the action described in the main clause & also the result of that action
e.g. He put his weight on the bottom rung of the ladder, so that he couldn’t slip <purpose>
note: for the purpose we have: [so that], [for fear that], [in order to])
e.g. the windows were so dirty that it was impossible to see through them <result>
e.g. it was so nice that we went out <result>
<so+adj+that>
e.g. it was such a nice day that we went out <result>
<such a+adj+noun+that>

g. Adverb clause of condition & concession:
to have concession, we use: [though], [although], [even if]
e.g. although he was ill, he came to school
e.g. I will do it even if it kills me

to have condition, we use: [if], [unless], [supposing that], [on condition that]
e.g. unless I am mistaken, she was at work yesterday
e.g. the event will cover it cost provided that all the tickets are sold
e.g. if I were you, I would stay at home


2. Adjective Clauses: a clause that modifies a noun is an adjective clause, it follow the noun it modifies. These clauses frequently referred to as related clauses.The relative pronouns whom, who, whose, which & that. These are important group of words that introduce adjective clauses.
These words are pronounced since they always refer back to the noun that the clause modifies.
* Who & which always refer to persons
* which always refer to things, eternally with “of which”.
They always function within the clause as subject of the verb, object of the verb or object of preposition, except “whose” which modifies the following noun as other possessives do.

Examples

1- There is the man who sold the car
2- I would like to see the boy who wrote this essay
3- There is the man whom we saw yesterday
4- There is the man to whom you spoke
There is the man you spoke to
5- There is the man whose son is in my class
The man has the son who is in my class
There is man’s son who is in my class
6- There is the man whose son I saw yesterday
7- There is the man to whose son I spoke yesterday
There is the man whose son I spoke yesterday

The words where, when, why may also introduce adjective clauses

Examples

1. This is the place where I lost my watch

2. The time when he arrived is not known

3. The reason why he didn’t come was that he was sick

Restrictive & non restrictive:

Restrictive are not set off by commas.
Nom restrictive are set off by commas.

Relative clauses are restrictive when they are needed for identification of the word they modify. Such clause restricts or limits the meaning of the sentence.

Examples

1- The man who stole was prosecuted

Who stole identify the prosecuted man

2- The city that he visited next was Mexico
Restrictive clauses beginning with that are always restrictive
Restrictive clauses beginning with who, whom, whose & which are either restrictive & non restrictive.
Non-restrictive clauses give information about a word already identifies. Such modifiers are parenthetical (they are not essential at the meaning of the main clause and may be omitted).

Example:

1-Henri Smith, who is lazy, will loose his job

3. Noun Clauses: Function in ways that nouns do, the can act as the subjects r the objects of verbs, as the objects of prepositions, as appositives, as complements, & generally, they can fulfill any of the functions of nouns.
the function word is often used to introduce noun clauses. Many noun clauses have no introductory word at all. Other introductory words are: if , whether , when , why , how , what , who , which , whatever & whichever.

Examples of noun Clauses:

a. noun clause as subject of verb:
e.g. where he came from was a mystery.
<where he came from is a noun clause uses as subject of the verb “was”>

b. noun clause as object of verb:
e.g. I see what you mean.
<what you mean is a noun clause uses as object of the verb “see”>

c. noun clause as object of preposition:
e.g. He was not listening to what I was saying
<what I was saying is a noun clause uses as object of preposition “to / about”>

d. noun clause as appositive:
e.g. the felling that he was right gave him courage
< that he was right is a noun clause uses as appositive>
We can say: The right feeling

e. noun clause as complement:
e.g. this is what I have always want it.
< what I have always want it is a noun clause uses as complement of the main verb>

A. Noun Clauses As Object
when noun clauses are used as subjects of verb, they may appear before the verb, just as noun usually do.
e.g. what I heard seemed unbelievable
e.g. how the fire started was unknown
however, this pattern is usually avoided, is specially in informal speech. English likes to get the heavier element toward the end of the sentence & a clause functioning as subject at the beginning is troublesome. To avoid it, we begin the sentence with the function word “it”
e.g. it is amazing that Catherine decide to stay.
e.g. it is believed that the man left town last night

B. Noun Clauses As Object Of Preposition
Noun clauses are often used in this way, that & it are not ordinarily used to introduce such clauses, but other connection words may be used.
e.g. we were undecided about where we would spent our
vacation
e.g. give the telegram to who ever comes to the door