Phonetics
What does it mean phonetics?
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics, it is a scientific study of the way and manner speech sounds are made by vocal tract (different articulators) organs of speech.
How many kinds of communication are there in phonetics and what are they?
1- Animals communication => doesn’t go beyond the instinct (it is instinctive).
2- Human communication => man speaks because he needs to have relation with others, he ****s in society, he is social.
note: human language can be divided in small unites which can form a lot of words. It is called “double articulation or duality”
What is phonetics?
Phonetics is the scientific study of human speech sounds. It is the study and the description of pronunciation; it is concerned with what we pronounce and how we pronounce, it provides means of describing and classifying virtually all the sounds that can be produced by human vocal tract. Phonetics is concerned with the human noises by which the message is actualized or given audible shape, the nature of these noises, their combinations and their functions in relation to the message.
Over a century ago, the great English philologist, linguist and phonetician HENRY SWEET describe phonetics as: “… the indispensable foundation of all study of language – whether that study purely theoretical, or practical as well …”. Phonetics looks at the speech sounds from three distinct, but independent view points:
1-Articulatory phonetics: it studies the speech process from the production side, it mean how speech sounds are produced (articulated).
2- Acoustic phonetics: it studies the sound waves as they are transmitted through the air from the mouth of the speaker to the ear of the hearer (it is purely physical)
3- Auditory phonetics: it studies the way in which human beings perceive sounds.
The speech chain (the phases of speech):
When someone speak to someone, the sequence of events is outlined as follows:
In response to the need to communicate about some event. The speaker conceptualize the event in a particular way and then encodes that conceptualization in from laid down by the grammar of his language. the linguistically encoded utterance is externalized and apprehended by the header through the agency of a series of events that we term the phases of speech. Any manifestation of language by means of speech is the result of highly complicated series of events, the communication in sound of such a simple concept as it’s raring involves a number of activities on the part of the speaker. In the first place, the information of the concept will take place at a linguistics level. I.e. in the brain; the first stage may, therefore, be said to be psychological. The nervous system transmits this message to the so-called ‘organ of speech’ and these in turn behave in a conventional manner, which, as we have learned by experience, will have the effect of producing a particular pattern of sound; the second important stage for our purpose may thus be said to be Articulatory or physiological. The movement of our organs of speech will create disturbances on air, or whatever the medium may be through which we are talking; these varying air pressures may be investigated and they constitute the third stage in our chain, the physical or acoustic. Since communication generally requires a listener as a speaker, these stages will be reserved at the listening end; the reception of the sound waves by the hearing apparatus (physiological) and the transmission of the information along the nervous system to the brain, where the linguistic interpretation of the message take place (psychological).
The language is acquired, it means we not born with language, it is not innate, But we have born with the organ of speak.
We have born with the highly skilled capacity (metally) of acquiring a language speaking.
Example: a baby doesn’t speak at first time although he has speak organs of speech.
A primary function of the so-called organs of speak is breathing and eating, not speaking. This is purely biological function.
Speech is only a secondary function (because man has spoken incidently).
Speech Chain (The Phases Of Speech)
Speaker
MSG
Hearer
ü Conceptualization
ü The Linguistic Level: organization of the word according to the grammar of the language you want to speak => Encode Msg
ü The Neurophysiological Level: the brain gives instructions through the motor nerve to the organs of speech to move according to the sounds to be produced => sounds are produced
Acoustic Level
ü The Neurophysiological Level: Sounds are transmitted through the sensory nerve to the brain
ü The Linguistic Level: The brain decode the Msg
ü The Linguistic Level:
ü Conceptualization
Organs Of Speech
Like animals, man has the ability to produce sounds by using certain of his body’s mechanisms.
The human being deferent from other animals in that, he has been able to organize the range of sounds which he can emit into a highly efficient system of communication.
Animals do not progress beyond intimate, they only produces sounds as a reflex to certain sentiments like: fear, hunger, illness…
Like other animals, man uses organs whose primary function is purely biological.
To communicate, he fellows:
I. Aerodynamics Of Speech:
There are 3 sources of air:
a. Pulmonic: comes from lungs. There is an exhalation of CO2 , so the flux of air is sent out by the windpipe. The pulmonic is proper to all.
b. Velaric: the air is compressed between the back of the tongue and soft palate.
c. Glottalic: air is compressed between the oral clauser and the glottis.
Air follows out when the sound is released, we used the glottalic air in case of ejections.
II. Direction Of Air:
there are two directions:
a. ..ressive air: is outgoing air
b. ingressive air: it means ingoing air, most human language uses egressive air.
The Air
The air is very important for speaking. If there were no air, speaking would never exist, this is the reason that we pause when we speak, so that refill our lungs with air, the stream provided by the lungs under goes important modification in the upper stages of the respiratory before it acquires the sound first of all. The air from the lungs goes to the larynx layer …..ter. The larynx is casing formed of the cartilage and the muscle.
The larynx is situated in the upper cord of the trachea, formed Adams Apple. The larynx contain two vocal cords vibrate, one is a compression of air, beneath them or forcing them to open and shut. When the series of the open and close of glottis, it is called “vibration of the ………………… elastic tissue.
The vocal cords can be brought together or they can be ………. Biologically.
The vocal cords as lid, which prevent any ……….. body to go in the wind pipe, so as to prevent..
Exercise :
ü Describe the direction of the air .
- ingressive: when the air come in
- Digressive: when the air come out
What’s the glottis open? It is breathing
ü Describe the 3 types of air direction.
- Palmonic: out going of CO2
- velaric: compressed air
- glotaric:
ü The vocal cords vibrate because there is a compression of air breath them = under them.
ü Why we call the organs of speech so-called organs of speech?
- we call them so-called organs of speech because the primary function of these so-called organs of speech is just eating and breathing (biological function), and the speak is just a secondary function because the man speak by accident or by suddenly. Teeth are just for chewing.
ü What’s the passive articulator? It means that is fixed or immobile.
ü What’s the active articulator? It means that is moving or mobile.
ü What’s meant by supra laryngeal (حنجرة) cavity (larynx nasal cavity)
it mean the space limited by larynx and nasal cavity
- when the soft palate is closed, the air goes from nasal cavity (فتحة الأنف)
- when the soft palate is opened, the air goes from oral closers
- the physics sounds is the domain of acoustic phonetics
- larynx situate in the upper stage of trachea (الرغامي)
Exercise :
Circle the words which contain “n” sound:
night, knight (فارس), needed, knowledge, pneumatic (غازي)
Circle the words which contain “Sh” sound:
Spanish, rash (جازف), , nation, malicious (حاقد), church
Circle the words which contain “f” sound:
Thought, rough (خشونة), through, tough (قوة), trafic, nough, daughter,
cleft,(شق), laugh, drought (جفاف),ought (واجب).
Circle the words which contain “l” sound:
call, walk, could, slunk, world, chalk
Circle the words which contain “b” sound:
belfry, tomb, tube, comb, bruise, nobody, thumb
Say whether the plural form of the following words sound “s”, “z”, “iz”
S
Z
IZ
Books
Coats
Clothes
Machines
Bags
flowers
Kids
Watches
Houses
“b” is not pronounced if it preceded by “m”
“gh” is not pronounced if it followed by “t”
“gh” is not pronounced if it preceded by “th”
“L” is not pronounced if it followed by “d” or “k”
The Vowels
A vowel may be defined in terms of both Phonetics & Phonology.
Phonetically, Vowels are sounds produced without a complete closure n the mouth or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction, the air is escapes freely (there is no obstruction) over the center of the tongue. If air escapes through the mouth, the vowels are said to be oral. If some air is simultaneously released through the nose cavity, they are said to be nasal.
From a Phonological point of view, vowels are units which function at the center of syllables.
In French, we have nasal vowels and oral vowels, but in English all vowels are oral.
The Description Of Vowels
To measure vowels, we have two conditions: the quantity & the quality.
1- The quantity:
short è 7 vowels { I , ℓ , æ , 9 , a , υ , K }
long: è 5 vowels {ί: , B: , r: , 1: , μ:}
Fully long: when final or when followed by voiced sounds
Reduced : when followed by voiceless sounds
2- The quality: we have 7 criteria
a. The first thing to say is the tongue raised (front, center, back)
b. Is the height of the tongue
c. The shape of the lips (very important)
d. The state of the tongue (leans or lax)
e. The position of rims of the tongue
f. The state of the velum (soft palate)
g. The position of the vocal cords.
/ ί: /
The vowel / ί: / is generally spelt as:
ee
e
ea
ie
ey
i
Tree
Be
Reason
Piece
Key
machine
- It is an RP long vowel
- It is pronounced with the front of the tongue raised slightly below and behind the close position that is below cardinal vowel n° 1.
- The lips are spread
- The tongue is tense so both rims are touching the upper molars
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
- Long / ί: / is fully long when it is final or when it is followed by a voiced sound
e.g.: <the / ί: / sound is underlined>
Be
Reason
Seize
Key
machine
Canteen
Season
Quay
Sea
See
Fee
free
- Long / ί: / is reduced when it is followed by a voiceless sound
Leaf
Brief
Complete
Piece
Suite
/ I /
- It is an RP short vowel
- It is pronounced with a part of the tongue nea…ts center show to front
- The lips are loosely spread
- The tongue is lax compared with the tension for / ί: /
- The rims of the tongue are in slight contact with the upper molars.
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ I / sound is spelt as
I
Sit
Rich
City
Bit
Fit
Big
Y
City
Pretty
Twenty
Heavy
e
Pretty
England
ie
Ladies
a
Village
o
Women
u
business
/ e /
- It is an RP short vowel
- The front of the tongue is raised between half close and half open position
- The lips are slightly spread
- The tongue may be tenses then in the case of the vowel / I /
- The rims make a slight contact with the upper molars.
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ e / sound is generally spelt as
e
Set
men
bed
set
went
ea
Head
Dead
Beath
Death
a
Many
Thames
ate
u
Buny
ai
Said
eo
Geoffrey
ei
Leicebter
friend
/ æ /
- It is an RP short vowel though it is not realy short
- The mouth is slightly more open than for /e/
- The front of the tongue is raised just below the half open position
- The tongue is tenses then in the case of the vowel / e /
- The rims make a very slight contact with the back upper molars.
- The lips are neutrally open
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ æ / sound is generally spelt as
a
Sat
Sad
Hand
Lamp
Pack
Bag
Back
Cab
Mass
Cap
Badge
Man
Jam
Fat
Balcony
Dad
Fat
han
Bat
ai
plait
/ 9 /
- It is an RP short vowel
- The center of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position
- The lips are neutrally open
- The tongue is tenses then in the case of the vowel / e /
- The jaws being considerably open so there is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.
- The tongue is lax
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ 9 / sound is generally spelt as
u
Sum
Mum
Much
Cut
cluck
Luck
o
Some
Done
Colon
one
Mouth
Mother
ou
Country
Tough
Enough
oo
Blood
Flood
oe
does
/ a: /
- It is an RP long vowel
- It is articulated with the back of the tongue in the fully open position
- The lips are neutrally open
- The tongue is lax
- There is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ a: / is generally spelt as
ar
Part
Car
March
Charles
Bar
Farm
ear
Heart
Hearth
er
Derby
Sergeant
Clerk
al
Half
Calm
Palm
au
Laugh
aunt
/a:/ it is fully long when it is final or when it is followed by a voiced sound
e.g.
Car
Card
Vase
/a:/ it is reduced when it is followed by a voicedless sound
e.g
Pass
Cart
march
/ Y /
- It is an RP short vowel
- It is articulated with the back of the tongue in the fully open position
- The lips are open rounded
- the jaws are wide open so there is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ Y: / is generally spelt as
o
Dock
Gone
Song
Long
Often
Lodge
a
Was
What
Want
Swan
Watch
ou
Cough
ow
Knowledge
au
Because
Cauliflower
Austria
Australia
/ 1: /
- It is an RP long vowel
- It is articulated with the back of the tongue raised between ½ close and ½ open position.
- It is articulated with mid lip rounding
- There is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.
- It never occurs before / /
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ 1: / is generally spelt as
or
cord
sword
horse
for
stork
Born
aw
jaw
Dawn
ou
bought
ought
a
All
Ball
Called
Salt
Water
ore
Before
More
oor
Door
Floor
our
Four
Court
oar
Board
/ 1:/ it is fully long when it is final or when it is followed by a voiced sound
e.g.
Cord
Door
Tall
Saw
/ 1:/ it is reduced when it is followed by a voicedless sound
e.g.
Talk
Horse
Bought
daughter
TIP: when it is final / 1:/ is diphthongised
e.g. more [n1:] à [n1K] four [f1:] à [f1K]
/ U /
- It is an RP short vowel
- It is pronounced with part of the tongue nearer to the center than to back
- The tongue is raised just above the half close position
- It has symmetrical back relationship with the front vowel / I /
- The tongue is laxer than it is for the vowel / u: /
- The lips are closely but loosely rounded
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ U / is spelt as
u
Put
Full
Sugar
Cushion
Butcher
o
Wolf
Women
oo
Good
Wood
Wool
Book
ou
Could
Courier
Should
Would
/ u: /
- It is an RP long vowel
- It is a back close vowel but not as back and as close as cardinal vowel n° 8
- The tongue is tense is no firm contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.
- The lips are closely rounded
- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.
/ u: / is spelt as
oo
Food
Boot
Balloon
Platoon
Buffoon
Saloon
School
Pool
Loop
ou
Soup
Group
Wound
Through
You
o
Do
u
Rude
Deluge
Rule
Susan
June
ew
Chew
ue
Blue
ui
Juice
Suit
oe
Shoe
Types of Vowels (TD)
In RP, English contain 44 sounds (24 consonant & 20 vowels).
è What is the difference between “consonant” & “vowel”?
Definition:
Vowels: are a class of sounds produced with no obstruction to the flow air as it pass from lungs to the side, the air is sent out more or less freely over the center of the tongue.
Consonants: are sounds produced with either a complete obstruction to the flow of air or moving.
è How to describe the vowels?
We need 2 conditions: we describe vowels in terms of quantity and quality.
1. The quantity: short vowels (7) and long vowels (5).
2. The quality: we have:
a. Height of the tongue (close, open)
b. Part of the tongue (front, center, back)
c. The shape of the lips (spread, sound, neutral)
d. The state of the tongue
e. The state of the rims of the tongue
f. The state of the velum (raised = oral, lowered = nasal)
g. The state of the vocal cords (vibrating V+, non vibrating V-)
The Vowels: Voiced & Voiceless
When a long vowel is followed by a voiced sound consonant or final the word, this long vowel is fully long
e.g. car /ka:/
When a long vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant, this vowel is reduced.
e.g. cart /ka: t/
All English vowels are voiced, that mean the vocal cords vibrate.
Activity: Listen & Repeat:
I
bit
bid
miss
bIt
bId
mIs
æ
bat
bad
man
bæt
bæd
mæn
ʌ
cut
bud
bus
cʌt
bʌd
bʌs
a
pat
cod
tam
Pat
cad
tam
υ
Put
Wood
Push
Pυt
Wυd
Pυs
ι:
Beat
Bead
Bί:t
Bί:d
a:
Heart
Hard
Ha:t
Ha:d
ɔ:
Caught
Cord
Cɔ:t
Cɔ:d