An Introduction to Literature (L1)

What is literature?

Although literature is sometimes defined as anything written, this understanding may seem both too broad and too narrow, too broad because it would mean that literature includes pamphlets and chronicles. Too narrow because it denies altogether the oral tradition (i.e. ballads[1][1] that are sung and stories that are recited and handed out from father to son.) Some view in literature a servile imitation of life, while others determine this from of expression as a recreation of reality. Both are unable to provide a satisfactory answer to the awesome interrogation “what is literature?”.

To probe with the notion of literature, Tzvetan Todorov suggests as a precautionary measure to examine rather the kind of discourse literary texts vehicle, considering that literature is, to borrow Robert Frost’s words “a performance in words”, a performance which may entertain, afford pleasure as well as insight into the nature of reality. René Wellek in the theory of literature seeks to define literature, distinguishing its particular use of language from other uses, namely: everyday language and scientific jargon. Unlike the two preceding uses, the literature use of language is highly connotative, that is rich in associations and ambiguities.[2][2]

Thus connotation is the primary characteristic of literary discourse. Fictionality is probably the second major feature. What a poem, a play or a piece of prose evoke is not “true”. It is merely the outcome of the author’s imagination, perception and subjective experience of his follow men and the world around. Nonetheless , one must keep in mind that the difference between lies and fiction is simply that the purpose of the first is to hide the truth, whereas the purpose of fiction is to unveil it.

Shakespeare and Eli***ethan Literary Renaissance (L3)

If Shakespeare’s plays and poems are the monument of a remarkable genius, the are also the outcome of a remarkable age[3][3].

After a long fallow period of dependence on Chaucer[4][4] as a classical model to be blindly imitated, Shakespeare’s great achievement a few centuries later, lies actually in the reconsideration of the popular taste and spoken language.

Nonetheless Shakespeare’s huge contribution was paved both by the work of his immediate predecessors, namely Spencer, Sidney, and Marlowe whose poetry and drama dared not to conform with the classical heritage. The historical and social circumstances occurring during that peculiar period were challenging enough to shape the 16th century mind. Eli***eth Era was determined by a singular intellectual, artistic, political as well as religious agitation. The English Reformation allowed the Authorized Version of the Bible, a modern version which was to be more accessible to the layman. A modern form of English was by now more or less favoured, yet it was not until the emergence of Shakespeare that such a form was to be established as a challenge to the classical past.

The Renaissance, as contrasted with the Medieval Age, was marked by humanism, reform and ambition. Dr Faustus by Marlowe[5][5] is the epitome of the Renaissance mind. Willing to transcend all possible limits, he defies the divine rule, believing that the ecstasy of earthly glory is its own reward.

Shakespeare and the sonnets

Shakespeare’s oeuvre includes drama and verse. His plays, though up to now feverishly discussed adapted and most appreciated for their vitality and powerful expression as well as in academic contexts and literary circles, they were fundamentally addressing an Eli***ethan stage. His plays are essentially a form of entrainment which had to fit the popular taste and go a step further to trigger the most refined minds. He produced both tragedies and comedies. As to poetry, the Sonnets remain probably one of his most mysterious and compelling literary production.

“With this key, Shakespeare unlocked his heart” said Wordsworth, commenting on the sonnets. The only trouble with this key is that it does not work.

Much speculation and less facts characterize the mysterious sonnets. To begin with, Shakespeare did not published them nor did he authorize their publication. It was Thomas Thorpe who did in 1609, Second, to textual difficulties are added biographical ones. The sonnets were dedicated to a man, up to now unidentified with utter certainly . Furthermore the sonnets address exclusively two mysterious figures known as the beautiful Young Ma, a most cherished friend, depicted as the poet’s “better angel”, and the Dark Lady, a fatal mistress portrayed as the “worsen spirit”.

Beauty, Love both moral and physical, as well as Time are the recurrent themes of the Shakespearian sonnet. The poet’s challenge of the old use of language whether in form or style was to be vividly expressed in the sonnets. First, Shakespeare was violating the conventions by addressing a young man. Second, the dark lady did not at all conform to the established canons of beauty and virtue as depicted in the classical heritage.

Apart from all the unanswered questions and unsatisfied curiosity that any reader of Shakespeare’s sonnets may develop, one certainty my may be maintained strongly, the father of the English language left behind some of the most beautiful and penetrating pieces of poetry in such a polemical book.

Shakespeare’s Immortal Words (L4)

William Shakespeare’s words transcend time and space and all literary traditions certainly because he evoked permanently and vividly the human being’s innermost self as naked as possible, unveiling Man’s goodness, dilemmas, fears, obsessions, as well as limitless lust and cruelty.

One may denote Shakespeare as a avant-gardism, and even a modern, one who rejected through his works traditional forms and ways of his age, questing for ever more freedom to innovate and vehicle such ideas, able to reshape the old world throughout a brand new look. Sonnet 127 is indeed the epitome of Shakespeare’s avant-gardism as a renaissance literary figure. He sketches through it a “reconsideration” of the “notion of beauty”. The poet develops through an argument a comparison between the past and the present’s vision of what beauty is.

He state clearly that yesterday’s criteria for beauty are no more valid, and so rejects openly the “idée reçue” which associates the basic notion of beauty with the “whiteness”, often a colour said to represent innocence. He advocates that “beauty’s successive heir” by now is “black”, a colour much loaded with heavy connotations. “blackness” evokes broadly speaking darkness, corruption, evil, sorrow and vice in Man.

“as such who not born fair no beauty lack”, Shakespeare insists on the fact that genuine beauty is not necessarily what one has been told it is or has been conditioned a life long to enjoy. Most often it is somewhere else in another disguise, behind the darkest masks. The poet is thus an utter revolutionary in the sense that he vehicles a conception that annihilate the archaic model which portrays beauty through a fair and virtuous woman which may only inspire unattainable love.

Shakespeare’s singularity as a poet lies also in his evocation of the “theme of love”. Sonnet 116 translates the “Shakespearian love” as developed further in some of his most compelling tragedies, namely Romeo and Juliet and Othello to name only these.

Love according to Shakespeare is passion and devotion, a holy union between two soul mates that are supposed together to survive to the world’s most wicked temptations and obstacles. True love survives it all, transcending Time and even Death. The poet seems to rank love the highest position, stating firmly and ironically altogether that if he was mistaken and his vision wrong, he never wrote anything valid and no Man as well ever experienced genuine love.

From a critical point of view, one may consider “Shakespearian love” too idealistic and so unearthly, and yet so magnificent and fascinating for the poor souls we are in front of the least temptation.

Poem: is not pragmatic, like the sentence we read it many times in order to understand, so it is internal structure.
e.g. Headlines of the newspaper are pragmatic because the time we read it, we understand.

This is the different between literature and non literature.

Pragmatic: If we have a reference in our environment

Non Pragmatic: thing which has no coherence.

Literature: is non pragmatic discourse.
e.g. the teacher writes on the table “keep silent”.

It s no reaction, nut when he says it to them orally, “keep silent”, it is a discourse, every language you use it is to mean something.

Literature is used also for communication.

Literature also is both of connotation and fiction.

Connotation: it is a deep meaning.
E.g. the cat is an animal, but his deep meaning is a small fury animal.

Fiction: according to the imagination.

I. The renaissance: who were influenced by him, they tried to improve themselves (talent, genius).

· Elizabethan Era: Eli***eth was the queen at that time

· Ambition: the wish to go beyond the limit.

· Bust: you have never satisfy.

· Divine rule: for GOD.

· Tragedy: sadness

II. He produced the fact of his people, he was inter, he like that work become adopted by the stage.

· His work addressed to the intellectuals.

· Sonnet: is a short poem.

· He addressed a dark lady, mysterious

· he discussed much love and emotion

· he seem upset by time, he care about death.

· beauty was also discussed by him

III. We don’t know for who were addressed.


Satan’s Address to the sun

1


O thou, that, with surpassing glory crowned,

2


Look’st from thy sole dominion like the God

3


Of this new world; at whose sight all the stars

4


Hide their diminished heads; to thee I call,

5


But with no friendly voice, and add thy name,

6


Of Sun! to tell thee how I hate thy beams,

7


That bring to my remembrance from what state

8


I fell, how glorious once above thy sphere;

9


Till pride and worse ambition threw me down
Eve Penitent

1


I beg, and clasp thy knees. Bereave me not,

2


Whereon I ****, thy gentle looks, thy aid,

3


Thy counsel in this uttermost distress,

4


My only strength and stay. Forlorn of thee,




(....)

1


Between us two let there be peace, both joining,

2


As joyn’d in injuries, one enmitie

3


Against a Foe by doom express assign'd us,

4


That cruel Serpent: On me exercise not

5


Thy hatred for this miserie befall'n,




(....)

1


More miserable; both have sin'd, but thou

2


Against God onely, I against God and thee,

3


And to the place of judgement will return,

4


There with my cries importune Heaven, that all

5


The sentence from thy head remov'd may light

6


On me, sole cause to thee of all this woe,

7


Mee mee onely just object of his ire.

8


She ended weeping, and her lowlie plight,

9


Immoveable till peace obtain'd from fault

10


Acknowledg'd and deplor'd, in ADAM wraught

11


Commiseration; soon his heart relented

12


Towards her, his life so late and sole delight,

13


Now at his feet submissive in distress,

14


Creature so faire his reconcilement seeking,

15


His counsel whom she had displeas'd,


John Milton (1608-1674)

It is generally agreed that the second English poet after Shakespeare is John Milton (1608-1674), who is such a towering figure in English literature that it sounds (seems) odd to learn, how little impression seems it have made as a poet in his life time at the core of his life.

He was born in London and educated at Christ’s college of Cambridge. After leaving the university, he studied at home in Houston, Buckingham, Shire (1632-1637) and he was grateful to his father for allowing him to do this instead of preparing for a job. He ****d pure life, believing that he had a great purpose to complete. At college, he was known as the lady of Christ. At the core of his life and art, many perceive impressing sense of vocation.

The commitment of a strongly Christian, puritan, humanist, and challenge (excellent at many faculties) is scholar to his God and his nation, his inner motivation was indeed “repair the ruin of our first parents by regaining to know God alright”

His obsession with the fall of man probably shaped and determined his art. He was very clear with people, he was very preaching. He belongs to 17th century, he wrote particular way because he was obsessed with a story for him, and literature is a sort of teaching. This is the right and the wrong way è lets choose the right to internalize emotion, internalize beauty. He felt that he was responsible and his duty was to show people the right way.

At the age of 23, he had still done little in life, as he admits in a sonnet.

How soon hate time, the subtle thief of youth.
Stolen on his wing my three and twentieth years.

He wrote also a sonnet on his own blindness

When I consider how my light is spent
Eve half my days, in this dark world and wide

In one part of one of his poems, he argues that some men might think it useless to study hard, but the hope of fame drives, the spirit on wards.

He chose the fall of angels, the story of “Adam and Eve” and their failure to keep God’s commands. This great epic poem (paradise lost, first painted in 1667 and sold in £10) was planned in ten books, it was the epitome of his position, not only as a scholar and a poet, but also as an ethical man whose talk’s is to reconcile man with the almighty add the right way or path.

The sense in the whole universe, including heaven and hell, its merit was not fully recognized until addition in an essay reveals what had remained (hidden treasure)

The art Milton of singular in the sense that in it, the artistic spirit of the renaissance and graver mood of Puritanism were purely blended.

More than a simple poet, he was a sort of spiritual father to the romantics (romantic poets). Century later (18th), there were people against civilization, modernization.

As well as the coming generation of another and readers (he was so serious in his things and in his way of dealing with how to come back to God. He was really reserved with nature. He was recluse (didn’t have sharing time with people), he devote most of his life to study and writing. He became completely blind.

Leading life of a recluse, mostly because of the eye sight was serious terrible until he became completely blind (1651) on the one hand, and his disastrous marriage in the other hand, because probably at this time of his life that Milton devoted most of his time to literary pursuits developing thoroughly the biblical theme of the fall and redemption of man.

Milton was defiantly against the life of contemplative by going away to look with distance. Living in fundamentally corrupted world, good and evil where to meet the mind must be exposed to the seeming pleasures of vice.

So, as a virtuous soul is compelled to resist them through mental strength and religions faith. There is behind such a conception a profound to a deep commencement to moral choice and individual responsibility.

Milton’s pose works were mainly concerned with church affairs, divorce, and freedom. The divorce pamphlet was mainly the result of his own hasty marriage (1643). Paradise lost contains hundred of remarkable things putted into musical verse, like:

The mind is it’s own place, and it self
can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven
Better to rein in hell than sever in heaven

The primary function of literature is essentially aesthetical (beauty) as far as Milton is concerned one cannot take for granted (take things for evident). The idea of “Art for art’s sake” i.e. to produce some thing. There is no real function, just to have pleasure, no function behind them.

But art is not always sake for him. Indeed for such “a devote poet”, literature is found a mentally means of teaching and preaching.
Orientalism

Is a term related to the orient as discovered, recorded, described and in sense invented by European in the west as far as literature it is concerned the discourse of the west about the east which has been accumulating since the renaissance accumulating and most particularly since the 18th century “Edward Saïd” a Palestinian intellectual who was born in America, had a famous book titled “Orientalism” published in 1978, evoke the issue (topic) in remarkably way. Orient is a discourse about a certain remote, inaccessible and exotic East a much prejudicing discourse rebilling both a barians and a dreadful. Sense of superiority of the west toward the orient, this discourse of ten originating from colonial officers and political agent.

Curiosity and speculation about the orient were certainly stimulated by traveler’s tails:

Marco Polo[6][1]: (1254-1324) is one of early mouth, pieces introducing the East to the west throughout these journeys and have lot of books.

The famous Arabians night or the equivalent, the ous and one night translated by “Antoine Gallend”, arased much interest In Europe. It contributed to the voke (mode) of the orient tail is the late 18th century. During that periode “Sir William John’s” one of the great British Orienalist translated many works from Arabic passion, culture and literature, and these translations were to influence the oriental teams of such romantic poets as “Lord Byron Thomas[7][2]” move to name only these.

The rise an expansion of the British Empire vastly increased the archives of the oriental studies.
Romanticism:

What use to be called the romantic, revival in English poetry was sometimes considered to have begun with the publication of Hyrical Ballades 1798 and to have more or less.

With the death of Lord Byran in 1824, Romanticism exalted imagination as the Novelist of human faculty new feeling for native was to strike and puzzle while earlier poets enjoyed nature, romantics, realize it to their nature is morally up lighting of spiritual healer nature is for, the Romantics instead with personality human moods and impulses.

Daniel Defoe[8][3] and novel writing
I. About the novel:

“every age that its major literary form to which the most able and ambitions spiritual attracted, it was in the drama, that the most vital impels of Eli***ethan literature to found their expressions.

The 17th century was rather marked by novel writing and (imitation) extended narrative prose that is meant to be basically an imitation of the life of men within society.

Historians have been guilty of confusion, they have assumed that the words fiction and Novel are synonyms and interchangeable, they are definitely, at the heart of the confusion in the fact that the story is common to both.

They can rarely have been any one book that has more profound by shaped the novel as a whole than Servant “Don quicote” who is a Spanish writer.

The great Spaniard became part of English literature, novelist have given many reasons for producing novels.

Richardson (British) believed that he did so to inculcate (teach) write, conduct fielding to reform the manners of the age (Dickens).

To expose social evils and trollop to make money by providing acceptable entertainment, no matter how different is the purpose behind this narrative prose the novel as a genre because the dominant made of expression since 17th century in the occident.
Adventure story “writing and extension of the empire”

Working earlier as a merchant, a government secret agent, a pamphleteer and a journalist, he was to became one of the 18th century greatest writers, the circumstances to which he beloved were to favor his inclinations towards journeying and writing a revolution in commerce was to be marked by the founding of the bank of England a central moment in the history of Britain. That was developing into an empire by 1760, most of India, most of north America and the west Indies annexed to Britain a key (Central) moment for extensive (large) journey and explanation of far away lands much witness to tame and civilize.

“Robinson Crusoe” by Daniel Defoe: is indeed the outcome of such circumstances epitomizing the adventure story, it has every element to seize attention curiosity rebellion son, pirates storms and shipwreck on Cannibal Island.
Pride and Prejudice

Chapter 1

It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.

However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters.

"My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, "have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?"

Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.

"But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it."

Mr. Bennet made no answer.

"Do you not want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently.

"You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it."

This was invitation enough.

"Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that Netherfield is taken by a young man of large fortune from the north of England; that he came down on Monday in a chaise and four to see the place, and was so much delighted with it, that he agreed with Mr. Morris immediately; that he is to take possession before Michaelmas, and some of his servants are to be in the house by the end of next week."

"What is his name?"

"Bingley."

"Is he married or single?"

"Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!"

"How so? How can it affect them?"

"My dear Mr. Bennet," replied his wife, "how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them."

"Is that his design in settling here?"

"Design! Nonsense, how can you talk so! But it is very likely that he may fall in love with one of them, and therefore you must visit him as soon as he comes."

"I see no occasion for that. You and the girls may go, or you may send them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better, for as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr. Bingley may like you the best of the party."

"My dear, you flatter me. I certainly have had my share of beauty, but I do not pretend to be anything extraordinary now. When a woman has five grown-up daughters, she ought to give over thinking of her own beauty."

"In such cases, a woman has not often much beauty to think of."

"But, my dear, you must indeed go and see Mr. Bingley when he comes into the neighbourhood."

"It is more than I engage for, I assure you."

"But consider your daughters. Only think what an establishment it would be for one of them. Sir William and Lady Lucas are determined to go, merely on that account, for in general, you know, they visit no newcomers. Indeed you must go, for it will be impossible for us to visit him if you do not."

"You are over-scrupulous, surely. I dare say Mr. Bingley will be very glad to see you; and I will send a few lines by you to assure him of my hearty consent to his marrying whichever he chooses of the girls; though I must throw in a good word for my little Lizzy."

"I desire you will do no such thing. Lizzy is not a bit better than the others; and I am sure she is not half so handsome as Jane, nor half so good-humoured as Lydia. But you are always giving her the preference."

"They have none of them much to recommend them," replied he; "they are all silly and ignorant like other girls; but Lizzy has something more of quickness than her sisters."

"Mr. Bennet, how can you abuse your own children in such a way? You take delight in vexing me. You have no compassion for my poor nerves."

"You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these last twenty years at least."

"Ah, you do not know what I suffer."

"But I hope you will get over it, and **** to see many young men of four thousand a year come into the neighbourhood."

"It will be no use to us, if twenty such should come, since you will not visit them."

"Depend upon it, my dear, that when there are twenty, I will visit them all."

Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humour, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three-and-twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. Her mind was less difficult to develop. She was a woman of mean understanding, little information, and uncertain temper. When she was discontented, she fancied herself nervous. The business of her life was to get her daughters married; its solace was visiting and news.



Chapter 2

Mr. Bennet was among the earliest of those who waited on Mr. Bingley. He had always intended to visit him, though to the last always assuring his wife that he should not go; and till the evening after the visit was paid she had no knowledge of it. It was then disclosed in the following manner. Observing his second daughter employed in trimming a hat, he suddenly addressed her with:

"I hope Mr. Bingley will like it, Lizzy."

"We are not in a way to know what Mr. Bingley likes," said her mother resentfully, "since we are not to visit."

"But you forget, mamma," said Eli***eth, "that we shall meet him at the assemblies, and that Mrs. Long promised to introduce him."

"I do not believe Mrs. Long will do any such thing. She has two nieces of her own. She is a selfish, hypocritical woman, and I have no opinion of her."

"No more have I," said Mr. Bennet; "and I am glad to find that you do not depend on her serving you."

Mrs. Bennet deigned not to make any reply, but, unable to contain herself, began scolding one of her daughters.

"Don't keep coughing so, Kitty, for Heaven's sake! Have a little compassion on my nerves. You tear them to pieces."

"Kitty has no discretion in her coughs," said her father; "she times them ill."

"I do not cough for my own amusement," replied Kitty fretfully. "When is your next ball to be, Lizzy?"





[1]A ballad is popular song or poem that usually tells a story.

[2] Connotative meaning refers to the “deep and hidden meaning” in contrast with the denotative one which refers to the surface meaning.

[3] William Shakespeare (1564-1616) English actor, playwright and poet

[4] Geoffrey Chaucer (1345-1400) known as the father of English poetry, he ranks as a poet of European stature. The Canterbury Tales is probably his most famous collection of narratives.

[5] Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) English playwright and poet whose works influenced much Shakespeare’s early plays. Dr Faustus is an adaptation he made out of the German Faust by Goethe. This ply by Marlowe is one of his most disturbing and controversial works.

[6] Marco Polo 13th-14th century Italian merchant and explorer, one of the first European explorers to travel across Asia

[7] Lord Byron (1788-1824) early 19th century English poet



[8] Daniel Defoe (1652?-1731), English writer and journalist, author of "Robinson Crusoe"